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A masterpiece of Gothic illumination: the Northumberland Bestiary
by:
Elizabeth Morrison
THE ILLUSTRATED bestiary was one of the most important traditions to emerge from medieval England.1 It served as the most famous picture book of its time. The text of the bestiary naturally lent itself to being illuminated, with each animal receiving a short text describing its specific behaviours in lively terms.2 These narrative sequences are often accompanied by illustrations which not only depict the beast's physical appearance, but also picture some essential aspect of its activities (plate 1).3
The bestiary was a particularly English phenomenon-without exception, all the finest bestiaries were made in England. Among these, the Northumberland Bestiary stands out as an example of the best that the tradition of bestiary illumination has to offer.4 Executed in the coloured drawing style that is part of Englands distinctive contribution to the history of art, the expressive naturalism that characterises the images of the Northumberland Bestiary marks a break with the rigidity of previous medieval art. The Northumberland Bestiary takes it place in the Getty's holdings as a true masterpiece of the Gothic era.
Each of the over one hundred animals featured in the Northumberland Bestiary has a unique and colourful story that makes visualisation a delight. In one image, two bats, known for the habit of gnashing their teeth, spread their wings menacingly and confront the viewer directly. In another, three sirens featuring both bird feathers and fish scales ready themselves to distract unwary sailors. A full-page miniature accompanies the account of Adam naming all the beasts of the world (plate 2): a squirrel nibbles on a nut, a proud eagle can be seen just above a menacing griffon, a rabbit leaps over a dragon, and a wild boar seems to bound off the back of a camel.
The energy inherent in this illumination can be seen throughout the manuscript, and is a hallmark of the style of the period. One of the largest miniatures in the manuscript features a sea teeming with every variety of sea creature, from the sting-ray and crab to the exotic sea-cow and mermaid. The composition is so crowded that the creatures fight, wriggle and squirm to claim their spots (plate 3).
Although bestiaries were a kind of medieval encyclopaedia of animals, they explored the world of animals primarily in order to explain their significance within the Christian world view (plate 4).5 Because God had created the creatures of the Earth as symbols of the divine plan that was inherent in every aspect of the natural world, the characteristics of each animal eventually came to be seen as representing specific aspects of the relationship between God and man.
The behaviour of animals ranging from beavers and monkeys to dragons and unicorns was explained in theological terms. For medieval readers, the texts and images compiled in the bestiary were intended less to present scientifically observed animal behaviours or even the physical appearance of the beast in question, but rather to provide an understanding of each creature as a symbolic reflection of the divine.
One pair of facing images in the Northumberland Bestiary illustrates this concept well. The flying fish known as the Serra depicted on fol. 46v was known for its tendency to race against ships (plate 5). Soon, however, it would tire and dive again into the sea, a parallel for Christians who commit themselves to a life of virtue, only to fall into the ways of sin once more through laziness or indolence.
The huge sea creature seen on the facing folio (fol. 47) was known for its ability to stay still for long periods of time, so that soil, sand, and eventually grass and plants would take root on its back. Sailors, thinking it was an island, would put down anchor and unwittingly build a fire, at which point the whale-like beast would feel the heat on its back and plunge deep into the water, dragging the hapless sailors with it. The creature signifies the Devil, who deceives the faithful and draws the unsuspecting down to hell (plate 6).
Although both creatures are fictitious, to those living in medieval Europe with little or no experience beyond the bounds of their hometowns, flying fish and huge whales would have seemed just as credible as other exotic beasts described in the bestiary that they would never see first-hand, such as leopards, monkeys, and elephants.
The illuminator of the Northumberland Bestiarys miniatures utilised a tinted drawing technique that is distinctive to Gothic England and imparts a striking vividness to the scenes. The particular ease with which the figures move can be seen in the image of the sailors making camp on the sea creatures back. The figure to the far right leans over to grasp the anchor and its rope, while the figure at the top balances a heavy sack on his shoulder as he climbs up the ships prow. The sea creature below, meanwhile, wrinkles its brow in concentration as it prepares to launch its diabolical plot. These realistic movements, postures, and expressions suggest not only the artists awareness of the construction of bodies and their natural movements, but also a desire to add a sense of verisimilitude to the scenes narrative.
Bestiaries are often considered the first commonly illustrated secular text of the Middle Ages and served as one of the most important vehicles for illumination during the Gothic era. The wealthy layperson who commissioned and read the Northumberland Bestiary no doubt enjoyed the fantastic aspects of its text and illumination as much as he or she valued its instructive content. Tales of elephants carrying soldiers in far-away India must have seemed as incredible to the manuscripts owner as the images of the terrible six-headed hydra, which will grow three more heads for each head cut off (plate 7).
Exquisitely drawn in the most refined medieval tradition, the Northumberland Bestiarys animals are lively and dynamic creations. The manuscript stands as a superb testament to the artistic heights achieved by English Gothic illumination.
NOTES
1 For a list of known bestiaries, see Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages: The Bestiary and Its Legacy, edited by Willene Clark and Meradith McMunn (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989).
2 Translations of the text can be found in The Book of Beasts, Being a Translation from a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century, trans. by T.H. White (New York: Putnam, 1954) and Bestiary: Being an English Version of the Bodleian Library, Oxford M.S. Bodley 764, trans. by Richard Barber (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1993). A translation of the Aberdeen Bestiary is available at www.abdn.ac.uk/bestiary/.
3 A great deal of information is available on the Medieval Bestiary website, run by David Badke of Victoria BC, Canada: www.bestiary.ca/index.html.
4 In 1958 the Roxburghe Club commissioned a facsimile of the manuscript in which all of the manuscripts miniatures were reproduced in black and white: A Thirteenth-century Bestiary in the Library of Alnwick Castle, introduction by Eric George Millar (Oxford: University Press, 1958).
5 Two excellent books which address the use of bestiaries in the Middle Ages are Ron Baxter, Bestiaries and Their Users in the Middle Ages (Stroud: Sutton Publishing Ltd, 1998) and Debra Hassig, Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology (Cambridge: University Press, 1995). |
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Figure 1
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Figure 2
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Figure 3
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